By mid German and Habsburg forces having retaken the lands of Congress Poland, divided them into two parts: the Germans administered the northwest sector from Warsaw with a civilian administrator, while the Austrians administered the southeast part from Lublin under army administration. To link the two governments, Vienna sent a Foreign Office official, Leopold von Andrian zu Werburg , to Warsaw to represent Habsburg interests.
Unlike Serbia where the monarchy now had the upper hand, the Polish issue always involved Germany. Predictably, the January meeting ended in acrimony. Tisza opposed a wholesale annexation of Serbia. At length, they compromised. Any territorial gains by Austria would be offset by territorial gains for Hungary.
Two essential war aims - Serbia and Poland - had been clarified in typical Habsburg fashion: postponed. Meanwhile, in succeeding months, with northern Serbia firmly under Habsburg military control, Conrad and his colleagues soon established a draconian military administration: absolutist, centralized, and with military and security considerations paramount.
This arrangement lasted until The chief of staff hoped army rule would become the future paradigm for the entire monarchy. Already in Friedrich Naumann had advanced the concept of a Mitteleuropa , clearly under German domination. A possible customs union with the Habsburg monarchy would be one byproduct and negotiations for such a union began in and were still underway in mid At every turn the Polish issue complicated the economic discussions.
With or without an economic agreement the monarchy was dependent on Berlin. These defeats encouraged the Romanians to enter the war. Meanwhile, Vienna needed military help. One result, long evaded by Conrad, came quickly: the German High Command took effective control of Habsburg military fortunes, though at first operations against Italy remained separate.
Swift German military successes against Romania now brought the Germans into territory long seen by the monarchy as in its special province. The change in the military command structure of the allies reflected the inevitable. The battlefield situation, furthermore, was altering everything. The two allies settled nothing, though they agreed to explore a possible peace overture. Out of sight various political and economic elites discussed possible war aims, including the possible transformation of the monarchy.
Still, the views were those of German-Austrians and Magyars, with the Slavic issue getting only cursory attention. In early a series of events quickly changed the political pressures on the Habsburg leadership.
An unhappy Vienna was confronted with a strategic fait accompli. American entry into the war could only be a matter of time. In this context the German and Habsburg leadership met in Vienna in 16 March to discuss war aims and a possible peace overture to France and Britain.
Emperor Charles insisted the monarchy could not fight another year. These allied negotiations resolved nothing, though the new Habsburg foreign minister, Ottokar Graf Czernin , expressed a willingness to concede Poland to Germany in return for gains in Romania and continued control of the Balkan situation, all in the hope of a peace accord with France.
Those hopes soon proved illusory. Czernin reported on his talks with Bethmann Hollweg. Nor did he neglect German ambitions toward Romania. Still optimistic about the war, he saw no need to make concessions to Berlin over Poland nor did he want more Romanians in Hungary.
He wanted Austria to take Bosnia and Herzegovina for territorial balance. The Austrian premier Heinrich Clam-Martinic still wanted part of Poland, while refusing to see the two southern provinces as offsetting Hungarian gains in Romania. He refused to make a deal.
The young emperor naively thought both halves of the monarchy could be satisfied. At length the group agreed to ask Berlin to guarantee the integrity of the monarchy, a virtual admission of dependence. Further, Berlin would be reminded that any increase in German territory must see a corresponding gain for the monarchy.
Eventually nothing came of the effort and it remained secret until Stressing the economic impact of the war on Austria-Hungary and possible revolution if peace did not come soon, Charles' letter suggested territorial concessions to the enemies to achieve a settlement.
In Berlin, however, the German leaders remained confident, easily brushing aside Habsburg fears. Still they agreed to another meeting on war aims. The Habsburg minister got few concessions. Poland still went to Germany and the monarchy got part of Romania but with the Germans taking the Romanian oil fields and the port of Constanta. Still more aggravating, Berlin wanted a naval base at Valona and economic concessions from Bulgaria.
Johnson announces that he has ordered an increase in U. Johnson also said that he would order additional increases if necessary. He pointed out that to fill the increase in military manpower On July 28, , President John F. In , after graduating from George Washington University, Jackie toured Sign up now to learn about This Day in History straight from your inbox.
The freak accident was caused by heavy fog. With some delay Vienna presented an ultimatum to Serbia on 23 July which was deliberately unacceptable. This was because Austria-Hungary was bent on a war and Germany encouraged it because the opportunity seemed perfect. Victory still seemed possible whereas in a few years' time Russia and France would have become invincible. Out of a mixture of desperation and over-confidence the decision-makers of Austria-Hungary and Germany unleashed a war to preserve and expand their empires.
The war that ensued would be their downfall. It is human nature to seek simple, satisfying answers, which is why the German war guilt thesis endures today. Without Berlin's encouragement of a strong Austro-Hungarian line against Serbia after Sarajevo - the "blank cheque" - WW1 would clearly not have broken out.
So Germany does bear responsibility. But it is equally true that absent a terrorist plot launched in Belgrade the Germans and Austrians would not have faced this terrible choice.
Civilian leaders in both Berlin and Vienna tried to "localise" conflict in the Balkans. It was Russia's decision - after Petersburg received its own "blank cheque" from Paris - to Europeanise the Austro-Serbian showdown which produced first a European and then - following Britain's entry - world conflagration.
Russia, not Germany, mobilised first. Still, none of the powers can escape blame. All five Great Power belligerents, along with Serbia, unleashed Armageddon. The war was started by the leaders of Germany and Austria-Hungary. Vienna seized the opportunity presented by the assassination of the archduke to attempt to destroy its Balkan rival Serbia. This was done in the full knowledge that Serbia's protector Russia was unlikely to stand by and this might lead to a general European war.
Germany gave Austria unconditional support in its actions, again fully aware of the likely consequences. Germany sought to break up the French-Russian alliance and was fully prepared to take the risk that this would bring about a major war. Some in the German elite welcomed the prospect of beginning an expansionist war of conquest. The response of Russia, France and later Britain were reactive and defensive. The best that can be said of German and Austrian leaders in the July crisis is that they took criminal risks with world peace.
In my opinion, it is the political and diplomatic decision-makers in Germany and Austria-Hungary who must carry the burden of responsibility for expanding a localised Balkan conflict into a European and, eventually, global war.
Germany, suffering from something of a "younger child" complex in the family of European empires, saw an opportunity to reconfigure the balance of power in their favour via an aggressive war of conquest. Use our online form to ask a librarian for help. A month after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie on July 28, , the Austro-Hungarian government declares war on Serbia.
Immediately, and within a period of six days, European countries declare war upon one another. In a span of four years, over twenty-one countries declare war and involvement in World War I.
Known as the Great War, the conflict becomes the most destructive and widespread the world had ever seen. Read more about it!
0コメント